Articles | Volume 5, issue 3
https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-451-2017
© Author(s) 2017. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-451-2017
© Author(s) 2017. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Research article
| 
17 Aug 2017
Research article |
| 17 Aug 2017
Tree-root control of shallow landslides
Department of Earth and Environmental Science, New Mexico Tech, Socorro, NM 87801, USA
Massimiliano Schwarz
School of Agricultural, Forest, and Food Sciences, Bern University of Applied Science, 3052 Zollikofen, Switzerland
EcorisQ, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland
Related authors
Denis Cohen, Guillaume Jouvet, Thomas Zwinger, Angela Landgraf, and Urs H. Fischer
E&G Quaternary Sci. J., 72, 189–201, https://doi.org/10.5194/egqsj-72-189-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/egqsj-72-189-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
During glacial times in Switzerland, glaciers of the Alps excavated valleys in low-lying regions that were later filled with sediment or water. How glaciers eroded these valleys is not well understood because erosion occurred near ice margins where ice moved slowly and was present for short times. Erosion is linked to the speed of ice and to water flowing under it. Here we present a model that estimates the location of water channels beneath the ice and links these locations to zones of erosion.
Feiko Bernard van Zadelhoff, Adel Albaba, Denis Cohen, Chris Phillips, Bettina Schaefli, Luuk Dorren, and Massimiliano Schwarz
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 2611–2635, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-2611-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-2611-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Shallow landslides pose a risk to people, property and infrastructure. Assessment of this hazard and the impact of protective measures can reduce losses. We developed a model (SlideforMAP) that can assess the shallow-landslide risk on a regional scale for specific rainfall events. Trees are an effective and cheap protective measure on a regional scale. Our model can assess their hazard reduction down to the individual tree level.
Aaron Micallef, Remus Marchis, Nader Saadatkhah, Potpreecha Pondthai, Mark E. Everett, Anca Avram, Alida Timar-Gabor, Denis Cohen, Rachel Preca Trapani, Bradley A. Weymer, and Phillipe Wernette
Earth Surf. Dynam., 9, 1–18, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-9-1-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-9-1-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We study coastal gullies along the Canterbury coast of New Zealand using field observations, sample analyses, drones, satellites, geophysical instruments and modelling. We show that these coastal gullies form when rainfall intensity is higher than 40 mm per day. The coastal gullies are formed by landslides where buried channels or sand lenses are located. This information allows us to predict where coastal gullies may form in the future.
Denis Cohen, Fabien Gillet-Chaulet, Wilfried Haeberli, Horst Machguth, and Urs H. Fischer
The Cryosphere, 12, 2515–2544, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-2515-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-2515-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
As part of an integrative study about the safety of repositories for radioactive waste under ice age conditions in Switzerland, we modeled the flow of ice of the Rhine glacier at the Last Glacial Maximum to determine conditions at the ice–bed interface. Results indicate that portions of the ice lobes were at the melting temperature and ice was sliding, two conditions necessary for erosion by glacier. Conditions at the bed of the ice lobes were affected by climate and also by topography.
F. Giadrossich, M. Niedda, D. Cohen, and M. Pirastru
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 19, 2451–2468, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-2451-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-2451-2015, 2015
Denis Cohen, Guillaume Jouvet, Thomas Zwinger, Angela Landgraf, and Urs H. Fischer
E&G Quaternary Sci. J., 72, 189–201, https://doi.org/10.5194/egqsj-72-189-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/egqsj-72-189-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
During glacial times in Switzerland, glaciers of the Alps excavated valleys in low-lying regions that were later filled with sediment or water. How glaciers eroded these valleys is not well understood because erosion occurred near ice margins where ice moved slowly and was present for short times. Erosion is linked to the speed of ice and to water flowing under it. Here we present a model that estimates the location of water channels beneath the ice and links these locations to zones of erosion.
Feiko Bernard van Zadelhoff, Adel Albaba, Denis Cohen, Chris Phillips, Bettina Schaefli, Luuk Dorren, and Massimiliano Schwarz
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 2611–2635, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-2611-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-2611-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Shallow landslides pose a risk to people, property and infrastructure. Assessment of this hazard and the impact of protective measures can reduce losses. We developed a model (SlideforMAP) that can assess the shallow-landslide risk on a regional scale for specific rainfall events. Trees are an effective and cheap protective measure on a regional scale. Our model can assess their hazard reduction down to the individual tree level.
Luuk Dorren, Frédéric Berger, Franck Bourrier, Nicolas Eckert, Charalampos Saroglou, Massimiliano Schwarz, Markus Stoffel, Daniel Trappmann, Hans-Heini Utelli, and Christine Moos
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-2022-32, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-2022-32, 2022
Publication in NHESS not foreseen
Short summary
Short summary
In the daily practice of rockfall hazard analysis, trajectory simulations are used to delimit runout zones. To do so, the expert needs to separate "realistic" from "unrealistic" simulated groups of trajectories. This is often done on the basis of reach probability values. This paper provides a basis for choosing a reach probability threshold value for delimiting the rockfall runout zone, based on recordings and simulations of recent rockfall events at 18 active rockfall sites in Europe.
Aaron Micallef, Remus Marchis, Nader Saadatkhah, Potpreecha Pondthai, Mark E. Everett, Anca Avram, Alida Timar-Gabor, Denis Cohen, Rachel Preca Trapani, Bradley A. Weymer, and Phillipe Wernette
Earth Surf. Dynam., 9, 1–18, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-9-1-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-9-1-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We study coastal gullies along the Canterbury coast of New Zealand using field observations, sample analyses, drones, satellites, geophysical instruments and modelling. We show that these coastal gullies form when rainfall intensity is higher than 40 mm per day. The coastal gullies are formed by landslides where buried channels or sand lenses are located. This information allows us to predict where coastal gullies may form in the future.
Adel Albaba, Massimiliano Schwarz, Corinna Wendeler, Bernard Loup, and Luuk Dorren
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 19, 2339–2358, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-19-2339-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-19-2339-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
We present a discrete-element-based model which is adapted and used to produce hillslope debris flows. The model parameters were calibrated using field experiments, and a very good agreement was found in terms of pressure and flow velocity. Calibration results suggested that a link might exist between the model parameters and the initial conditions of the granular material. However, to better understand this link, further investigations are required by conducting detailed lab-scale experiments.
Denis Cohen, Fabien Gillet-Chaulet, Wilfried Haeberli, Horst Machguth, and Urs H. Fischer
The Cryosphere, 12, 2515–2544, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-2515-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-2515-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
As part of an integrative study about the safety of repositories for radioactive waste under ice age conditions in Switzerland, we modeled the flow of ice of the Rhine glacier at the Last Glacial Maximum to determine conditions at the ice–bed interface. Results indicate that portions of the ice lobes were at the melting temperature and ice was sliding, two conditions necessary for erosion by glacier. Conditions at the bed of the ice lobes were affected by climate and also by topography.
Massimiliano Schwarz, Filippo Giadrossich, Peter Lüscher, and Peter F. Germann
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-2017-761, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-2017-761, 2018
Preprint withdrawn
Short summary
Short summary
Vegetation strongly influences the hydrology of hillslopes that are important for the mitigation of flood risks. In this work we present a new conceptual model that aims to link the effect of tree roots combined to the preferential flow of water. We use data from field experiments, coupled to tree position and dimension for the quantification of water preferential flow patches of a vegetated hillslope, considering topography and soil profile characteristics.
F. Giadrossich, M. Niedda, D. Cohen, and M. Pirastru
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 19, 2451–2468, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-2451-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-2451-2015, 2015
M. Schwarz, F. Giadrossich, and D. Cohen
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 17, 4367–4377, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-17-4367-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-17-4367-2013, 2013
Related subject area
Cross-cutting themes: Digital Landscapes: Insights into geomorphological processes from high-resolution topography and quantitative interrogation of topographic data
Massive sediment pulses triggered by a multi-stage alpine cliff fall (Hochvogel, DE/AT)
Multi-sensor monitoring and data integration reveal cyclical destabilization of the Äußeres Hochebenkar rock glacier
Size, shape and orientation matter: fast and semi-automatic measurement of grain geometries from 3D point clouds
Rockfall trajectory reconstruction: a flexible method utilizing video footage and high-resolution terrain models
Short Communication: Evaluating the accuracy of binary classifiers for geomorphic applications
Drainage reorganization induces deviations in the scaling between valley width and drainage area
Unraveling the hydrology and sediment balance of an ungauged lake in the Sudano-Sahelian region of West Africa using remote sensing
Comparative analysis of the Copernicus, TanDEM-X, and UAV-SfM digital elevation models to estimate lavaka (gully) volumes and mobilization rates in the Lake Alaotra region (Madagascar)
Beyond 2D landslide inventories and their rollover: synoptic 3D inventories and volume from repeat lidar data
Coastal change patterns from time series clustering of permanent laser scan data
Measurement of rock glacier surface change over different timescales using terrestrial laser scanning point clouds
Short communication: A semiautomated method for bulk fault slip analysis from topographic scarp profiles
Short Communication: A simple workflow for robust low-cost UAV-derived change detection without ground control points
Computing water flow through complex landscapes – Part 1: Incorporating depressions in flow routing using FlowFill
Relationships between regional coastal land cover distributions and elevation reveal data uncertainty in a sea-level rise impacts model
A segmentation approach for the reproducible extraction and quantification of knickpoints from river long profiles
A method based on structure-from-motion photogrammetry to generate sub-millimetre-resolution digital elevation models for investigating rock breakdown features
A comparison of structure from motion photogrammetry and the traversing micro-erosion meter for measuring erosion on shore platforms
Measuring decadal vertical land-level changes from SRTM-C (2000) and TanDEM-X ( ∼ 2015) in the south-central Andes
Bank erosion processes measured with UAV-SfM along complex banklines of a straight mid-sized river reach
Identification of stable areas in unreferenced laser scans for automated geomorphometric monitoring
Unsupervised detection of salt marsh platforms: a topographic method
The determination of high-resolution spatio-temporal glacier motion fields from time-lapse sequences
Bumps in river profiles: uncertainty assessment and smoothing using quantile regression techniques
Unravelling earth flow dynamics with 3-D time series derived from UAV-SfM models
Automated terrestrial laser scanning with near-real-time change detection – monitoring of the Séchilienne landslide
Validation of digital elevation models (DEMs) and comparison of geomorphic metrics on the southern Central Andean Plateau
3-D models and structural analysis of rock avalanches: the study of the deformation process to better understand the propagation mechanism
Frontiers in Geomorphometry and Earth Surface Dynamics: possibilities, limitations and perspectives
How does grid-resolution modulate the topographic expression of geomorphic processes?
Suitability of ground-based SfM–MVS for monitoring glacial and periglacial processes
Image-based surface reconstruction in geomorphometry – merits, limits and developments
Topography-based flow-directional roughness: potential and challenges
A nondimensional framework for exploring the relief structure of landscapes
Topographic roughness as a signature of the emergence of bedrock in eroding landscapes
Tracing the boundaries of Cenozoic volcanic edifices from Sardinia (Italy): a geomorphometric contribution
Transitional relation exploration for typical loess geomorphologic types based on slope spectrum characteristics
Extracting topographic swath profiles across curved geomorphic features
Short Communication: TopoToolbox 2 – MATLAB-based software for topographic analysis and modeling in Earth surface sciences
Natalie Barbosa, Johannes Leinauer, Juilson Jubanski, Michael Dietze, Ulrich Münzer, Florian Siegert, and Michael Krautblatter
Earth Surf. Dynam. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2023-10, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2023-10, 2023
Revised manuscript accepted for ESurf
Short summary
Short summary
Massive sediment pulses in catchments are a key alpine multi-risks component. Combining high-resolution aerial imagery and seismic information, we decipher a multi-stage >150.000 m3 rockfall and subsequent sediment pulses over 4 years, reflecting sediment deposition up to 10 m, redistribution in the basin, and finally debouchure to the outlet. This study provides generic information on spatial and temporal patterns of massive sediment pulses in highly-charged alpine catchments.
Lea Hartl, Thomas Zieher, Magnus Bremer, Martin Stocker-Waldhuber, Vivien Zahs, Bernhard Höfle, Christoph Klug, and Alessandro Cicoira
Earth Surf. Dynam., 11, 117–147, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-117-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-11-117-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The rock glacier in Äußeres Hochebenkar (Austria) moved faster in 2021–2022 than it has in about 70 years of monitoring. It is currently destabilizing. Using a combination of different data types and methods, we show that there have been two cycles of destabilization at Hochebenkar and provide a detailed analysis of velocity and surface changes. Because our time series are very long and show repeated destabilization, this helps us better understand the processes of rock glacier destabilization.
Philippe Steer, Laure Guerit, Dimitri Lague, Alain Crave, and Aurélie Gourdon
Earth Surf. Dynam., 10, 1211–1232, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-1211-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-1211-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The morphology and size of sediments influence erosion efficiency, sediment transport and the quality of aquatic ecosystem. In turn, the spatial evolution of sediment size provides information on the past dynamics of erosion and sediment transport. We have developed a new software which semi-automatically identifies and measures sediments based on 3D point clouds. This software is fast and efficient, offering a new avenue to measure the geometrical properties of large numbers of sediment grains.
François Noël, Michel Jaboyedoff, Andrin Caviezel, Clément Hibert, Franck Bourrier, and Jean-Philippe Malet
Earth Surf. Dynam., 10, 1141–1164, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-1141-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-1141-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Rockfall simulations are often performed to make sure infrastructure is safe. For that purpose, rockfall trajectory data are needed to calibrate the simulation models. In this paper, an affordable, flexible, and efficient trajectory reconstruction method is proposed. The method is tested by reconstructing trajectories from a full-scale rockfall experiment involving 2670 kg rocks and a flexible barrier. The results highlight improvements in precision and accuracy of the proposed method.
Matthew William Rossi
Earth Surf. Dynam. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2022-51, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2022-51, 2022
Revised manuscript accepted for ESurf
Short summary
Short summary
High resolution topographic maps have revolutionized our ability to map small-scale features on Earth's surface. Using accuracy metrics from the data sciences, I show that caution is warranted in interpreting pixel-level accuracy scores without also considering scene-level properties. Choosing the right metric and understanding its larger-scale context is needed to properly interpret how good our maps actually are.
Elhanan Harel, Liran Goren, Onn Crouvi, Hanan Ginat, and Eitan Shelef
Earth Surf. Dynam., 10, 875–894, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-875-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-875-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Drainage reorganization redistributes drainage area across basins, resulting in channel and valley widths that may be unproportional to the new drainage area. We demonstrate scaling between valley width and drainage area in reorganized drainages that deviates from scaling in non-reorganized drainages. Further, deviation patterns are associated with different reorganization categories. Our findings are consequential for studies that rely on this scaling for valley width estimation.
Silvan Ragettli, Tabea Donauer, Peter Molnar, Ron Delnoije, and Tobias Siegfried
Earth Surf. Dynam., 10, 797–815, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-797-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-797-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
This paper presents a novel methodology to identify and quantitatively analyze deposition and erosion patterns in ephemeral ponds or in perennial lakes with strong water level fluctuations. We apply this method to unravel the water and sediment balance of Lac Wégnia, a designated Ramsar site in Mali. The study can be a showcase for monitoring Sahelian lakes using remote sensing data, as it sheds light on the actual drivers of change in Sahelian lakes.
Liesa Brosens, Benjamin Campforts, Gerard Govers, Emilien Aldana-Jague, Vao Fenotiana Razanamahandry, Tantely Razafimbelo, Tovonarivo Rafolisy, and Liesbet Jacobs
Earth Surf. Dynam., 10, 209–227, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-209-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-10-209-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Obtaining accurate information on the volume of geomorphic features typically requires high-resolution topographic data, which are often not available. Here, we show that the globally available 12 m TanDEM-X DEM can be used to accurately estimate gully volumes and establish an area–volume relationship after applying a correction. This allowed us to get a first estimate of the amount of sediment that has been mobilized by large gullies (lavaka) in central Madagascar over the past 70 years.
Thomas G. Bernard, Dimitri Lague, and Philippe Steer
Earth Surf. Dynam., 9, 1013–1044, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-9-1013-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-9-1013-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Both landslide mapping and volume estimation accuracies are crucial to quantify landscape evolution and manage such a natural hazard. We developed a method to robustly detect landslides and measure their volume from repeat 3D point cloud lidar data. This method detects more landslides than classical 2D inventories and resolves known issues of indirect volume measurement. Our results also suggest that the number of small landslides classically detected from 2D imagery is underestimated.
Mieke Kuschnerus, Roderik Lindenbergh, and Sander Vos
Earth Surf. Dynam., 9, 89–103, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-9-89-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-9-89-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Sandy coasts are areas that undergo a lot of changes, which are caused by different influences, such as tides, wind or human activity. Permanent laser scanning is used to generate a three-dimensional representation of a part of the coast continuously over an extended period. By comparing three unsupervised learning algorithms, we develop a methodology to analyse the resulting data set and derive which processes are dominating changes in the beach and dunes.
Veit Ulrich, Jack G. Williams, Vivien Zahs, Katharina Anders, Stefan Hecht, and Bernhard Höfle
Earth Surf. Dynam., 9, 19–28, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-9-19-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-9-19-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
In this work, we use 3D point clouds to detect topographic changes across the surface of a rock glacier. These changes are presented as the relative contribution of surface change during a 3-week period to the annual surface change. By comparing these different time periods and looking at change in different directions, we provide estimates showing that different directions of surface change are dominant at different times of the year. This demonstrates the benefit of frequent monitoring.
Franklin D. Wolfe, Timothy A. Stahl, Pilar Villamor, and Biljana Lukovic
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 211–219, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-211-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-211-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
This short communication presents an efficient method for analyzing large fault scarp data sets. The programs and workflow required are open-source and the methodology is easy to use; thus the barrier to entry is low. This tool can be applied to a broad range of active tectonic studies. A case study in the Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand, exemplifies the novelty of this tool by generating results that are consistent with extensive field campaigns in only a few hours at a work station.
Kristen L. Cook and Michael Dietze
Earth Surf. Dynam., 7, 1009–1017, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-1009-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-1009-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
UAVs have become popular tools for detecting topographic changes. Traditionally, detecting small amounts of change between two UAV surveys requires each survey to be highly accurate. We take an alternative approach and present a simple processing workflow that produces survey pairs or sets that are highly consistent with each other, even when the overall accuracy is relatively low. This greatly increases our ability to detect changes in settings where ground control is not possible.
Kerry L. Callaghan and Andrew D. Wickert
Earth Surf. Dynam., 7, 737–753, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-737-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-737-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Lakes and swales are real landscape features but are generally treated as data errors when calculating water flow across a surface. This is a problem because depressions can store water and fragment drainage networks. Until now, there has been no good generalized approach to calculate which depressions fill and overflow and which do not. We addressed this problem by simulating runoff flow across a landscape, selectively flooding depressions and more realistically connecting lakes and rivers.
Erika E. Lentz, Nathaniel G. Plant, and E. Robert Thieler
Earth Surf. Dynam., 7, 429–438, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-429-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-429-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Our findings examine several data inputs for probabilistic regional sea-level rise (SLR) impact predictions. To predict coastal response to SLR, detailed information on the landscape, including elevation, vegetation, and/or level of development, is needed. However, we find that the inherent relationship between elevation and land cover datasets (e.g., beaches tend to be low lying) is used to reduce error in a coastal response to SLR model, suggesting new applications for areas of limited data.
Boris Gailleton, Simon M. Mudd, Fiona J. Clubb, Daniel Peifer, and Martin D. Hurst
Earth Surf. Dynam., 7, 211–230, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-211-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-211-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
The shape of landscapes is influenced by climate changes, faulting or the nature of the rocks under the surface. One of the most sensitive parts of the landscape to these changes is the river system that eventually adapts to such changes by adapting its slope, the most extreme example being a waterfall. We here present an algorithm that extracts changes in river slope over large areas from satellite data with the aim of investigating climatic, tectonic or geologic changes in the landscape.
Ankit Kumar Verma and Mary Carol Bourke
Earth Surf. Dynam., 7, 45–66, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-45-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-45-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
The article describes the development of a portable triangle control target to register structure-from-motion-derived topographic data. We were able to generate sub-millimetre-resolution 3-D models with sub-millimetre accuracy. We verified the accuracy of our models in an experiment and demonstrated the potential of our method by collecting microtopographic data on weathered Moenkopi sandstone in Arizona. The results from our study confirm the efficacy of our method at sub-millimetre scale.
Niamh Danielle Cullen, Ankit Kumar Verma, and Mary Clare Bourke
Earth Surf. Dynam., 6, 1023–1039, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-6-1023-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-6-1023-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
This research article provides a comparison between the traditional method of measuring erosion on rock shore platforms using a traversing micro-erosion meter (TMEM) and a new approach using structure from motion (SfM) photogrammetry. Our results indicate that SfM photogrammetry offers several advantages over the TMEM, allowing for erosion measurement at different scales on rock surfaces with low roughness while also providing a means to identify different processes and styles of erosion.
Benjamin Purinton and Bodo Bookhagen
Earth Surf. Dynam., 6, 971–987, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-6-971-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-6-971-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
We show a new use for the SRTM-C digital elevation model from February 2000 and the newer TanDEM-X dataset from ~ 2015. We difference the datasets over hillslopes and gravel-bed channels to extract vertical land-level changes. These signals are associated with incision, aggradation, and landsliding. This requires careful correction of the SRTM-C biases using the TanDEM-X and propagation of significant uncertainties. The method can be applied to moderate relief areas with SRTM-C coverage.
Gonzalo Duró, Alessandra Crosato, Maarten G. Kleinhans, and Wim S. J. Uijttewaal
Earth Surf. Dynam., 6, 933–953, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-6-933-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-6-933-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
The challenge to measure three-dimensional bank irregularities in a mid-sized river reach can be quickly solved in the field flying a drone with ground-control points and later applying structure from motion photogrammetry. We tested a simple approach that achieved sufficient resolution and accuracy to identify the full bank erosion cycle, including undermining. This is an easy-to-use and quickly deployed survey alternative to measure bank erosion processes along extended distances.
Daniel Wujanz, Michael Avian, Daniel Krueger, and Frank Neitzel
Earth Surf. Dynam., 6, 303–317, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-6-303-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-6-303-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
The importance of increasing the degree of automation in the context of monitoring natural hazards or geological phenomena is apparent. A vital step in the processing chain of monitoring deformations is the transformation of captured epochs into a common reference systems. This led to the motivation to develop an algorithm that realistically carries out this task. The algorithm was tested on three different geomorphic events while the results were quite satisfactory.
Guillaume C. H. Goodwin, Simon M. Mudd, and Fiona J. Clubb
Earth Surf. Dynam., 6, 239–255, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-6-239-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-6-239-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Salt marshes are valuable environments that provide multiple services to coastal communities. However, their fast-paced evolution poses a challenge to monitoring campaigns due to time-consuming processing. The Topographic Identification of Platforms (TIP) method uses high-resolution topographic data to automatically detect the limits of salt marsh platforms within a landscape. The TIP method provides sufficient accuracy to monitor salt marsh change over time, facilitating coastal management.
Ellen Schwalbe and Hans-Gerd Maas
Earth Surf. Dynam., 5, 861–879, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-861-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-861-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
The simple use of time-lapse cameras as a visual observation tool may already be a great help for environmental investigations. However, beyond that, they have the potential to also deliver precise measurements with high temporal and spatial resolution when applying appropriate processing techniques. In this paper we introduce a method for the determination of glacier motion fields from time-lapse images, but it might also be adapted for other environmental motion analysis tasks.
Wolfgang Schwanghart and Dirk Scherler
Earth Surf. Dynam., 5, 821–839, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-821-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-821-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
River profiles derived from digital elevation models are affected by errors. Here we present two new algorithms – quantile carving and the CRS algorithm – to hydrologically correct river profiles. Both algorithms preserve the downstream decreasing shape of river profiles, while CRS additionally smooths profiles to avoid artificial steps. Our algorithms are able to cope with the problems of overestimation and asymmetric error distributions.
François Clapuyt, Veerle Vanacker, Fritz Schlunegger, and Kristof Van Oost
Earth Surf. Dynam., 5, 791–806, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-791-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-791-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
This work aims at understanding the behaviour of an earth flow located in the Swiss Alps by reconstructing very accurately its topography over a 2-year period. Aerial photos taken from a drone, which are then processed using a computer vision algorithm, were used to derive the topographic datasets. Combination and careful interpretation of high-resolution topographic analyses reveal the internal mechanisms of the earthflow and its complex rotational structure, which is evolving over time.
Ryan A. Kromer, Antonio Abellán, D. Jean Hutchinson, Matt Lato, Marie-Aurelie Chanut, Laurent Dubois, and Michel Jaboyedoff
Earth Surf. Dynam., 5, 293–310, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-293-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-293-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
We developed and tested an automated terrestrial laser scanning (ATLS) system with near-real-time change detection at the Séchilienne landslide. We monitored the landslide for a 6-week period collecting a point cloud every 30 min. We detected various slope processes including movement of scree material, pre-failure deformation of discrete rockfall events and deformation of the main landslide body. This system allows the study of slope processes a high level of temporal detail.
Benjamin Purinton and Bodo Bookhagen
Earth Surf. Dynam., 5, 211–237, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-211-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-5-211-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
We evaluate the 12 m TanDEM-X DEM for geomorphometry and compare elevation accuracy (using over 300 000 dGPS measurements) and geomorphic metrics (e.g., slope and curvature) to other modern satellite-derived DEMs. The optically generated 5 m ALOS World 3D is less useful due to high-frequency noise. Despite improvements in radar-derived satellite DEMs, which are useful for elevation differencing and catchment analysis, lidar data are still necessary for fine-scale analysis of hillslope processes.
Céline Longchamp, Antonio Abellan, Michel Jaboyedoff, and Irene Manzella
Earth Surf. Dynam., 4, 743–755, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-743-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-743-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
The main objective of this research is to analyze rock avalanche dynamics by means of a detailed structural analysis of the deposits coming from data of 3-D measurements. The studied deposits are of different magnitude: (1) decimeter level scale laboratory experiments and (2) well-studied rock avalanches.
Filtering techniques were developed and applied to a 3-D dataset in order to detect fault structures present in the deposits and to propose kinematic mechanisms for the propagation.
Giulia Sofia, John K. Hillier, and Susan J. Conway
Earth Surf. Dynam., 4, 721–725, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-721-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-721-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
The interdisciplinarity of geomorphometry is its greatest strength and one of its major challenges. This special issue showcases exciting developments that are the building blocks for the next step-change in the field. In reading and compiling the contributions we hope that the scientific community will be inspired to seek out collaborations and share ideas across subject-boundaries, between technique-developers and users, enabling us as a community to gather knowledge from our digital landscape
Stuart W. D. Grieve, Simon M. Mudd, David T. Milodowski, Fiona J. Clubb, and David J. Furbish
Earth Surf. Dynam., 4, 627–653, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-627-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-627-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
High-resolution topographic data are becoming more prevalent, yet many areas of geomorphic interest do not have such data available. We produce topographic data at a range of resolutions to explore the influence of decreasing resolution of data on geomorphic analysis. We test the accuracy of the calculation of curvature, a hillslope sediment transport coefficient, and the identification of channel networks, providing guidelines for future use of these methods on low-resolution topographic data.
Livia Piermattei, Luca Carturan, Fabrizio de Blasi, Paolo Tarolli, Giancarlo Dalla Fontana, Antonio Vettore, and Norbert Pfeifer
Earth Surf. Dynam., 4, 425–443, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-425-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-425-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
We investigated the applicability of the SfM–MVS approach for calculating the geodetic mass balance of a glacier and for the detection of the surface displacement rate of an active rock glacier located in the eastern Italian Alps. The results demonstrate that it is possible to reliably quantify the investigated glacial and periglacial processes by means of a quick ground-based photogrammetric survey that was conducted using a consumer grade SRL camera and natural targets as ground control points.
Anette Eltner, Andreas Kaiser, Carlos Castillo, Gilles Rock, Fabian Neugirg, and Antonio Abellán
Earth Surf. Dynam., 4, 359–389, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-359-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-359-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
Three-dimensional reconstruction of earth surfaces from overlapping images is a promising tool for geoscientists. The method is very flexible, cost-efficient and easy to use, leading to a high variability in applications at different scales. Performance evaluation reveals that good accuracies are achievable but depend on the requirements of the individual case study. Future applications and developments (i.e. big data) will consolidate this essential tool for digital surface mapping.
Sebastiano Trevisani and Marco Cavalli
Earth Surf. Dynam., 4, 343–358, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-343-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-343-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
The generalization of the concept of roughness implies the need to refer to a family of roughness indices capturing specific aspects of surface morphology. We test the application of a flow-oriented directional measure of roughness based on the geostatistical index MAD (median of absolute directional differences), computed considering gravity-driven flow direction. The use of flow-directional roughness improves geomorphometric modeling and the interpretation of landscape morphology.
Stuart W. D. Grieve, Simon M. Mudd, Martin D. Hurst, and David T. Milodowski
Earth Surf. Dynam., 4, 309–325, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-309-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-309-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
Relationships between the erosion rate and topographic relief of hillslopes have been demonstrated in a number of diverse settings and such patterns can be used to identify the impact of tectonic plate motion on the Earth's surface. Here we present an open-source software tool which can be used to explore these relationships in any landscape where high-resolution topographic data have been collected.
D. T. Milodowski, S. M. Mudd, and E. T. A. Mitchard
Earth Surf. Dynam., 3, 483–499, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-3-483-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-3-483-2015, 2015
Short summary
Short summary
Rock is exposed at the Earth surface when erosion rates locally exceed rates of soil production. This transition is marked by a diagnostic increase in topographic roughness, which we demonstrate can be a powerful indicator of the location of rock outcrop in a landscape. Using this to explore how hillslopes in two landscapes respond to increasing erosion rates, we find that the transition from soil-mantled to bedrock hillslopes is patchy and spatially heterogeneous.
M. T. Melis, F. Mundula, F. DessÌ, R. Cioni, and A. Funedda
Earth Surf. Dynam., 2, 481–492, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2-481-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2-481-2014, 2014
S. Zhao and W. Cheng
Earth Surf. Dynam., 2, 433–441, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2-433-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2-433-2014, 2014
S. Hergarten, J. Robl, and K. Stüwe
Earth Surf. Dynam., 2, 97–104, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2-97-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2-97-2014, 2014
W. Schwanghart and D. Scherler
Earth Surf. Dynam., 2, 1–7, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2-1-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-2-1-2014, 2014
Cited articles
Amundson, R., Heimsath, A., Owen, J., Yoo, K., and Dietrich, W. E.: Hillslope soils and vegetation, Geomorphology, 234, 122–132, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.12.031, 2015.
Askarinejad, A., Casini, F., Bischof, P., Beck, A., and Springman, S. M.: Rainfall induced instabilities: a field experiment on a silty sand slope in northern Switzerland, Italian Geotechnical Journal, 3, 50–71, 2012.
Bak, P., Tang, C., and Wiesenfeld, K.: Self-organized criticality, Phys. Rev. A, 38, 364–374, https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevA.38.364, 1988.
Bebi, P., Seidl, R., Motta, R., Fuhr, M., Firm, D., Krumm, F., Conedera, M., Ginzler, C., Wohlgemuth, T., and Kulakowski, D.: Changes of forest cover and disturbance regimes in the mountain forests of the Alps, Forest Ecol. Manag., 388, 43–56, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.10.028, 2017.
Bellugi, D., Milledge, D. G., Dietrich, W. E., Perron, J. T., and McKean, J.: Predicting shallow landslide size and location across a natural landscape: Application of a spectral clustering search algorithm, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 120, 2552–2585, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JF003520, 2015.
Beven, K. and Germann, P.: Macropores and water flow in soils revisited, Water Resour. Res., 49, 3071–3092, https://doi.org/10.1002/wrcr.20156, 2013.
Bischetti, G. B., Chiaradia, E. A., Simonato, T., Speziali, B., Vitali, B., Vullo, P., and Zocco, A.: Root Strength and Root Area Ratio of Forest Species in Lombardy (Northern Italy), Plant Soil, 278, 11–22, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-005-0605-4, 2005.
Blume, H., Brümmer, G., Horn, R., Kandeler, E., Kögel-Knabner, I., Kretzschmar, R., Stahr, K., and Wilke, B.: Scheffer/Schachtschabel–Soil Science Textbook (Lehrbuch der Bodenkunde), Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, Heidelberg, Germany, 2010 (in German).
Bordoni, M., Meisina, C., Valentino, R., Lu, N., Bittelli, M., and Chersich, S.: Hydrological factors affecting rainfall-induced shallow landslides: From the field monitoring to a simplified slope stability analysis, Eng. Geol., 193, 19–37, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2015.04.006, 2015.
Borja, R. I. and Koliji, A.: On the effective stress in unsaturated porous continua with double porosity, J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 57, 1182–1193, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmps.2009.04.014, 2009.
Cohen, D., Lehmann, P., and Or, D.: Fiber bundle model for multiscale modeling of hydromechanical triggering of shallow landslides, Water Resour. Res., 45, W10436, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009WR007889, 2009.
Cohen, D., Schwarz, M., and Or, D.: An analytical fiber bundle model for pullout mechanics of root bundles, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 116, F03010, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JF001886, 2011.
Docker, B. and Hubble, T.: Quantifying root-reinforcement of river bank soils by four Australian tree species, Geomorphology, 100, 401–418, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2008.01.009, 2008.
Dorren, L. and Schwarz, M.: Quantifying the Stabilizing Effect of Forests on Shallow Landslide-Prone Slopes, in: Ecosystem-Based Disaster Risk Reduction and Adaptation in Practice, 255–270, Springer, Cham, Switzerland, 2016.
Ekanayake, J. C. and Phillips, C. J.: A method for stability analysis of vegetated hillslopes: an energy approach, Can. Geotech. J., 36, 1172–1184, https://doi.org/10.1139/t99-060, 1999.
Gabet, E. J. and Mudd, S. M.: Bedrock erosion by root fracture and tree throw: A coupled biogeomorphic model to explore the humped soil production function and the persistence of hillslope soils, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 115, F04005, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JF001526, 2010.
Gerke, H. H. and van Genuchten, M. T.: A dual-porosity model for simulating the preferential movement of water and solutes in structured porous media, Water Resour. Res., 29, 305–319, https://doi.org/10.1029/92WR02339, 1993.
Giadrossich, F., Schwarz, M., Cohen, D., Preti, F., and Or, D.: Mechanical interactions between neighbouring roots during pullout tests, Plant Soil, 367, 391–406, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-012-1475-1, 2013.
Giadrossich, F., Cohen, D., Schwarz, M., Seddaiu, G., Contran, N., Lubino, M., Valdés-Rodríguez, O. A., and Niedda, M.: Modeling bio-engineering traits of Jatropha curcas L., Ecol. Eng., 89, 40–48, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2016.01.005, 2016.
Hamilton, L.: Forests and water: a thematic study prepared in the framework of the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005, Food and Agricultural Organization, United Nations, Rome, Italy, 2008.
Hergarten, S. and Neugebauer, H. J.: Self-organized criticality in a landslide model, Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 801–804, https://doi.org/10.1029/98GL50419, 1998.
Hoffman, B. S. S. and Anderson, R. S.: Tree root mounds and their role in transporting soil on forested landscapes, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 39, 711–722, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3470, 2014.
Hwang, T., Band, L. E., Hales, T. C., Miniat, C. F., Vose, J. M., Bolstad, P. V., Miles, B., and Price, K.: Simulating vegetation controls on hurricane-induced shallow landslides with a distributed ecohydrological model, J. Geophys. Res.-Biogeo., 120, 361–378, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JG002824, 2015.
Istanbulluoglu, E. and Bras, R. L.: Vegetation-modulated landscape evolution: Effects of vegetation on landscape processes, drainage density, and topography, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 110, F02012, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JF000249, 2005.
Iverson, R. M.: Landslide triggering by rain infiltration, Water Resour. Res., 36, 1897–1910, https://doi.org/10.1029/2000WR900090, 2000.
Jakob, M., Bovis, M., and Oden, M.: The significance of channel recharge rates for estimating debris-flow magnitude and frequency, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 30, 755–766, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1188, 2005.
Larsen, I. J. and Montgomery, D. R.: Landslide erosion coupled to tectonics and river incision, Nat. Geosci., 5, 468–473, https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1479, 2012.
Lehmann, P. and Or, D.: Hydromechanical triggering of landslides: From progressive local failures to mass release, Water Resour. Res., 48, W03535, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011WR010947, 2012.
Lehmann, P., Gambazzi, F., Suski, B., Baron, L., Askarinejad, A., Springman, S. M., Holliger, K., and Or, D.: Evolution of soil wetting patterns preceding a hydrologically induced landslide inferred from electrical resistivity survey and point measurements of volumetric water content and pore water pressure, Water Resour. Res., 49, 7992–8004, https://doi.org/10.1002/2013WR014560, 2013.
Li, S., Liang, W., Fu, B., Lü, Y., Fu, S., Wang, S., and Su, H.: Vegetation changes in recent large-scale ecological restoration projects and subsequent impact on water resources in China's Loess Plateau, Sci. Total Environ., 569–570, 1032–1039, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.06.141, 2016.
Lu, N. and Godt, J. W.: Hillslope hydrology and stability, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 2013.
Lu, N., Godt, J. W., and Wu, D. T.: A closed-form equation for effective stress in unsaturated soil, Water Resour. Res., 46, W05515, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009WR008646, 2010.
Marden, M.: Effectiveness of reforestation in erosion mitigation and implications for future sediment yields, East Coast catchments, New Zealand: A review, New Zeal. Geogr., 68, 24–35, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-7939.2012.01218.x, 2012.
Mariotta, S.: Summary of 120 years of forestry engineering to secure territory, Journal Forestier Suisse, 155, 278–283, 2004.
Matsushi, Y., Hattanji, T., and Matsukura, Y.: Mechanisms of shallow landslides on soil-mantled hillslopes with permeable and impermeable bedrocks in the Boso Peninsula, Japan, Geomorphology, 76, 92–108, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2005.10.003, 2006.
McGuire, L. A., Rengers, F. K., Kean, J. W., Coe, J. A., Mirus, B. B., Baum, R. L., and Godt, J. W.: Elucidating the role of vegetation in the initiation of rainfall-induced shallow landslides: Insights from an extreme rainfall event in the Colorado Front Range, Geophys. Res. Lett., 43, 9084–9092, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL070741, 2016.
Meusburger, K. and Alewell, C.: Impacts of anthropogenic and environmental factors on the occurrence of shallow landslides in an alpine catchment (Urseren Valley, Switzerland), Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 8, 509–520, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-8-509-2008, 2008.
Milledge, D. G., Bellugi, D., McKean, J. A., Densmore, A. L., and Dietrich, W. E.: A multidimensional stability model for predicting shallow landslide size and shape across landscapes, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 119, 2481–2504, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JF003135, 2014.
Miura, S., Amacher, M., Hofer, T., San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., Ernawati, and Thackway, R.: Protective functions and ecosystem services of global forests in the past quarter-century, changes in Global Forest Resources from 1990 to 2015, Forest Ecol. Manag., 352, 35–46, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2015.03.039, 2015.
Montgomery, D. R.: Soil erosion and agricultural sustainability, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 104, 13268–13272, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0611508104, 2007.
Montgomery, D. R. and Dietrich, W. E.: A physically based model for the topographic control on shallow landsliding, Water Resour. Res., 30, 1153–1171, https://doi.org/10.1029/93WR02979, 1994.
Moos, C., Bebi, P., Graf, F., Mattli, J., Rickli, C., and Schwarz, M.: How does forest structure affect root reinforcement and susceptibility to shallow landslides?, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 41, 951–960, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3887, 2016.
Nature Editorial: Finite Earth, Nat. Geosci., 8, 735–735, 2015.
Pawlik, L.: The role of trees in the geomorphic system of forested hillslopes – A review, Earth-Sci. Rev., 126, 250–265, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.08.007, 2013.
Petley, D. N., Higuchi, T., Petley, D. J., Bulmer, M. H., and Carey, J.: Development of progressive landslide failure in cohesive materials, Geology, 33, 201–204, 2005.
Phillips, J. D., Turkington, A. V., and Marion, D. A.: Weathering and vegetation effects in early stages of soil formation, Catena, 72, 21–28, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2007.03.020, 2008.
Pollen, N. and Simon, A.: Estimating the mechanical effects of riparian vegetation on stream bank stability using a fiber bundle model, Water Resour. Res., 41, W07025, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004WR003801, 2005.
Reid, M. E., LaHusen, R. G., and Iverson, R. M.: Debris-flow initiation experiments using diverse hydrologic triggers, Proceedings of the 1997 1st International Conference on Debris-Flow Hazards Mitigation: Mechanics, Prediction, and Assessment, 7–9 August 1997, San Francisco, CA, USA, ASCE, New York, NY, USA, 1–11, 1997.
Rickli, C. and Graf, F.: Effects of forests on shallow landslides–case studies in Switzerland, Forest Snow and Landscape Research, 82, 33–44, 2009.
Roering, J. J., Schmidt, K. M., Stock, J. D., Dietrich, W. E., and Montgomery, D. R.: Shallow landsliding, root reinforcement, and the spatial distribution of trees in the Oregon Coast Range, Can. Geotech. J., 40, 237–253, https://doi.org/10.1139/t02-113, 2003.
Roering, J. J., Marshall, J., Booth, A. M., Mort, M., and Jin, Q.: Evidence for biotic controls on topography and soil production, Earth Planet. Sc. Lett., 298, 183–190, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2010.07.040, 2010.
Schwarz, M., Cohen, D., and Or, D.: Root-soil mechanical interactions during pullout and failure of root bundles, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 115, F04035, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JF001603, 2010a.
Schwarz, M., Lehmann, P., and Or, D.: Quantifying lateral root reinforcement in steep slopes – from a bundle of roots to tree stands, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 35, 354–367, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1927, 2010b.
Schwarz, M., Preti, F., Giadrossich, F., Lehmann, P., and Or, D.: Quantifying the role of vegetation in slope stability: A case study in Tuscany (Italy), Ecol. Eng., 36, 285–291, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2009.06.014, 2010c.
Schwarz, M., Cohen, D., and Or, D.: Pullout tests of root analogs and natural root bundles in soil: Experiments and modeling, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 116, F02007, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JF001753, 2011.
Schwarz, M., Cohen, D., and Or, D.: Spatial characterization of root reinforcement at stand scale: Theory and case study, Geomorphology, 171–172, 190–200, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.05.020, 2012a.
Schwarz, M., Thormann, J., Zürcher, K., and Feller, K.: Quantifying root reinforcement in protection forests: Implications for slope stability and forest management, in: Proceedings of the 12th Congress Interpraevent, 23–26 April 2012, Grenoble, France, 12 pp., 2012b.
Schwarz, M., Giadrossich, F., and Cohen, D.: Modeling root reinforcement using a root-failure Weibull survival function, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 17, 4367–4377, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-17-4367-2013, 2013.
Schwarz, M., Rist, A., Cohen, D., Giadrossich, F., Egorov, P., Büttner, D., Stolz, M., and Thormann, J.-J.: Root reinforcement of soils under compression, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 120, 2103–2120, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JF003632, 2015.
Schwarz, M., Phillips, C., Marden, M., McIvor, I. R., Douglas, G. B., and Watson, A.: Modelling of root reinforcement and erosion control by “Veronese” poplar on pastoral hill country in New Zealand, New Zeal. J. For. Sci., 46, 17 pp., https://doi.org/10.1186/s40490-016-0060-4, 2016.
Shao, W., Bogaard, T. A., Bakker, M., and Greco, R.: Quantification of the influence of preferential flow on slope stability using a numerical modelling approach, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 19, 2197–2212, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-19-2197-2015, 2015.
Sidle, R. C. and Bogaard, T. A.: Dynamic earth system and ecological controls of rainfall-initiated landslides, Earth-Sci. Rev., 159, 275–291, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2016.05.013, 2016.
Sidle, R. C. and Ochiai, H.: Landslides: processes, prediction, and land use, vol. 18, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, USA, 2006.
Sidle, R. C. and Ziegler, A. D.: The canopy interception–landslide initiation conundrum: insight from a tropical secondary forest in northern Thailand, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 651–667, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-651-2017, 2017.
Soubra, A.-H. and Macuh, B.: Active and passive earth pressure coefficients by a kinematical approach, P. I. Civil Eng.-Geotec., 155, 119–131, https://doi.org/10.1680/geng.2002.155.2.119, 2002.
Stokes, A., Douglas, G. B., Fourcaud, T., Giadrossich, F., Gillies, C., Hubble, T., Kim, J. H., Loades, K. W., Mao, Z., McIvor, I. R., Mickovski, S. B., Mitchell, S., Osman, N., Phillips, C., Poesen, J., Polster, D., Preti, F., Raymond, P., Rey, F., Schwarz, M., and Walker, L. R.: Ecological mitigation of hillslope instability: ten key issues facing researchers and practitioners, Plant Soil, 377, 1–23, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-014-2044-6, 2014.
Tron, S., Dani, A., Laio, F., Preti, F., and Ridolfi, L.: Mean root depth estimation at landslide slopes, Ecol. Eng., 69, 118–125, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2014.03.019, 2014.
Van Genuchten, M. T.: A closed-form equation for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 44, 892–898, 1980.
Vergani, C., Schwarz, M., Soldati, M., Corda, A., Giadrossich, F., Chiaradia, E. A., Morando, P., and Bassanelli, C.: Root reinforcement dynamics in subalpine spruce forests following timber harvest: a case study in Canton Schwyz, Switzerland, Catena, 143, 275–288, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.038, 2016.
Waldron, L. J. and Dakessian, S.: Soil reinforcement by roots: calculation of increased soil shear resistance form root properties, Soil Science, 132, 427–435, 1981.
Wehrli, A., Brang, P., Maier, B., Duc, P., Binder, F., Lingua, E., Ziegner, K., Kleemayr, K., and Dorren, L.: Schutzwaldmanagement in den Alpen – eine Übersicht | Management of protection forests in the Alps – an overview, Schweizerische Zeitschrift fur Forstwesen, 158, 142–156, https://doi.org/10.3188/szf.2007.0142, 2007.
Wilkinson, M. T., Chappell, J., Humphreys, G. S., Fifield, K., Smith, B., and Hesse, P.: Soil production in heath and forest, Blue Mountains, Australia: influence of lithology and palaeoclimate, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 30, 923–934, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1254, 2005.
Win, S.: Tensile strength of compacted soil subject to wetting and drying, Master's thesis, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia, 2006
Wu, T. H., McKinnell III, W. P., and Swanston, D. N.: Strength of tree roots and landslides on Prince of Wales Island, Alaska, Can. Geotech. J., 16, 19–33, https://doi.org/10.1139/t79-003, 1979.
Zhou, Y., Watts, D., Li, Y., and Cheng, X.: A case study of effect of lateral roots of Pinus yunnanensis on shallow soil reinforcement, Forest Ecol. Manag., 103, 107–120, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1127(97)00216-8, 1998.
Short summary
Tree roots reinforce soils on slopes. A new slope stability model is presented that computes root reinforcement including the effects of root heterogeneities and dependence of root strength on tensile and compressive strain. Our results show that roots stabilize slopes that would otherwise fail under a rainfall event. Tension in roots is more effective than compression. Redistribution of forces in roots across the hillslope plays a key role in the stability of the slope during rainfall events.
Tree roots reinforce soils on slopes. A new slope stability model is presented that computes...
